Colonialism and Imperialism
Colonialism and Imperialism- For the erstwhile victims of colonialism and imperialism, the two terms stand for one and the same thing because they mean foreign rule, economic exploitation of land and other resources and dominance of foreign culture. But imperialism basically implies political control whereas colonialism dominates people’s life and culture. Militarism is a must for imperialism. Colonialism controls the social, economic, political and cultural life of the natives but imperialism is more formal and more aggressive. 
Causes of the Development of New Imperialism
The conditions in the nineteenth century were favourable to imperialism. The imperialistic countries took full advantage of them and justified their conquests. They presented imperialism as a natural and necessary occurrence. The causes responsible for the development of new imperialism are as follows:
(A) Economic Causes
1. Surplus Production - Industrial Revolution brought about a great change in the economic organization of the society. After 1870 the industrial production increased and Germany, Italy and the U.S.A. besides England and France became anxious how to sell their finished goods. This forced them to search for new markets. The business classes in these countries exerted pressure on their governments to capture colonies or bring undeveloped regions under their rule. This formed the basis of new imperialism.
2. Surplus Capital – Industrial Revolution also helped the European countries to accumulate capital. If this surplus capital was re-invested in Europe it would earn little interest, therefore the capitalists wanted to invest this surplus capital in places where it could earn maximum profits. So there was a desire to invest capital in colonies.
3. Need for Raw Materials – The growing demand for raw materials by the industrialized countries was also one of the important causes of imperialism. The demand for raw materials such as rubber, tin, tungsten, manganese, cotton and vegetable oil etc. was increasing for industrial production. So the industrialized countries tried to capture colonies where these raw materials were available in abundance and at a cheap rate. Foodgrains also were procured from the colonies.
4. Development of the Means of Transportation and Communication – Means of transportation developed as a result of industrial revolution. The steamships made it easy to have trade relations with distant lands. The invention of railways, telephone, telegraph and development of postal system enabled man to conquer time and space. The system of refrigeration in ships was introduced in 1880. Now fruits, butter, cheese and eggs could easily be carried to distant colonies. Business deals could be struck with colonies with the help of telegraph and cable.
5. Pressure of Population – In the nineteenth country, the population of Europe increased very rapidly. The problem of providing them dwelling place and employment became fiercer every day. An easy solution of the problem was to make a large number of people settle in other countries. This led to the establishment of colonies.
(B) Political Causes
No doubt imperialism is an outcome of the political and economic needs of a country, some writers thinkers and politicians also played an important role in it. The influence of such nationalists in England, France, Belgium, Portugal, Italy and Germany etc. promoted colonialism. Some countries like Italy and Russia joined the race for colonial expansion due to political reasons. France was the first to enter Africa to capture Cyprus and Cape of Good Hope. To enhance its national importance Italy occupied Libya. England took Egypt under its protection. After the discovery of sea routes, great nations planned to seize those places where the ships could rest and replenish their supply of coal and water. Therefore they tried to conquer islands which were near the sea coast or on these sea routes and to establish their supremacy there.
(C) Other Causes
In the establishment of an empire only those persons take a leading part who have their own personal interests. The forces that fostered these feelings were as follows:
1.The Merchant Class – The merchant class in any country always thinks of the expansion of its business. They are staunch supporters of imperialism because they are always on the look out of new markets to sell their manufactures including arms and ammunition. The owners of big shipping companies and bankers also play an important role in the expansion of imperialism.
2.Ardent Nationalism – Ardent nationalism was another cause of the spread of this new imperialism. Goaded by the spirit of nationalism various states in Europe were eager to expand their power in the world. Germany and Italy dreamt of increasing their power by establishing their empires. France hoped to regain its lost glory by increasing its colonies. Britain wished to keep intact whatever it had already got as also to further expand her empire. Many nationalist countries wanted to have colonies as military and naval bases. Many European powers tried to conquer islands on the coast or on the routes and to establish their hold there. When an ordinary citizen looked at the colonies of his country on the map of the world, he felt elated with national pride.
3.Contribution of Christian Missionaries – Religion has played an important role in the expansion of European imperialism. The main objective of European priests was to preach Christianity. However they were considered a good means of expansion of empire. If the Christian missionaries were humiliated in any way, the national government used it as an excuse and attacked that country to avenge the humiliation or interfered in its internal administration. For example, when two German priests were murdered in China in the latter half of the nineteenth century, Germany captured one of the Chinese ports.
Missionaries also promoted imperialism directly. Dr. David Livingstone of England spent twenty years in the interiors of Africa and explored the basins of rivers Congo and Zambezi. Before his death in 1873, he sent the message to his countrymen that the land of Africa was fit for trade and preaching Christianity. Many British missionaries, besides preaching Christianity in Asia and Africa, worked for the expansion of political and economic empire of their country. Similarly, Cardinal Levigerie of France established his religious influence in Tunis. This helped France in occupying Tunis. The Belgian priests likewise prepared ground for establishing the influence of their country in the Congo region.
4.Expansion of Imperialism under the Pretence of ‘Divine Holy Task’ of Spreading their Civilization in Backward Regions – Tens of thousands of Europeans believed that the civilization of the while people – especially that of their own country – was superior to that of the coloured people in backward countries. They also felt that it was their sacred duty to take this so-called superior civilization to backward regions. So the Christian missionaries started welfare activities for the people of backward regions. Thousands of missionaries, teachers and doctors dedicated their life to the service of the backward people. But under the excuse of redeeming the undeveloped people or benevolent and humanitarian activities, European states expanded their empire.
(D) Geographical Explorers
Geographical explorations in Europe started from the age of Renaissance. They reached their climax by the end of nineteenth century. These explorations helped the expansion of imperialism. Some of the enthusiasts were Burton, Karl Peters, Spake, Grant Baker, Henry Marton Stanley, Dr. David Livingstone and Gustav Nauctigal. Du Chaillu and De Brazza of France explored the equatorial regions of Africa and Henry Marton Stanley of England the basin of river Congo. Karl Peters of Germany made some very useful discoveries in eastern Africa.
The credit for making Cameroon and Togoland German colonies goes to Gustav Nauctigal. These explorers traced the course of the Nile, the Niger, the Congo and the Zambezi the four important African rivers. The publication of Stanley’s books aroused among Europeans a desire to establish colonies.
(E) Circumstances Favourable to Imperialism in Asia and Africa
No industrial revolution had taken place in Asia and Africa. The craftsmen here were skilled and made beautiful articles which were appreciated and eagerly bought by people in western countries. But these artisans used hand tools and produced goods on a small scale. The production technique in Asia and Africa was outdated. These continents were militarily weak and could not stand before the superior European military power. The governments here were powerless and followed the feudal system of administration which had lost its utility in the present day. Strong nation-states had not emerged here. The rulers were indifferent to public welfare. In these circumstances, the small groups of westerners thrived here and gradually succeeded in grabbing the whole country with the support of their governments. By 1870 arable land in Australia had been habilitated and Monroe Doctrine had closed the doors of America on Europeans. Hence, Asia and Africa appeared specially suitable for exploitation and expansion of empire. So now the Europeans turned their attention towards them.
(A)Exploitation of New World
The discovery of America by Colombus (1492) and of sea-route to India by Vasco Da Gama (1498) were epoch-making events. Trade between Europe and Asia began to flourish during the last quarter of the fifteenth century. Spices from Malacea, Java and Sumatra and diamonds, pearls, muslin and timber from India had a brisk market in Europe. There were two trade-routes one from Calicut to Cairo and Alexandria via Aden. From there the goods reached the Mediterranean ports in Venetian ships. The other route was from Calicut to Omurz and Beirut and from there the Italian traders took the goods to various countries of Europe. But after the fall of Constantinople (1453) when these routes did not remain safe the search for new routes started Portugal and Spain played a leading role in it.
Colonisation – Spain set up first colony in Haiti in the Caribbean Sea and then slowly spread to Florida and Mexico (in North America) and Chile, Pentegonia and large coastal areas in South America. The objective was lust for gold, national glory and spread of Christianity. The Portuguese set up their colony in Brazil but as the climate was very hot there they brought Negro slaves from Africa to work in farms. From here starts the horrible history of slave trade. The Portuguese expanded their trade in the east and made voyages to India and the Far East. They established their trade centres in India, Sri Lanka, Malacca, Sumatra, Java and captured the fortified port of Macao in China.
Portugal and Spain divided their areas of influence and held monopoly there. The colonies were a source of raw materials in profusion as well as a safe market for their manufactured goods. They were subjected to economic plunder but when the spirit of nationalism in colonies made this system difficult to continue new imperialism took its place.
Till 1750 colonial development provided commercial advantages and strengthened military power. In the later half of the eighteenth century, the British imperialists added a third element i.e. the system of factories. Britain was the first country which realized the importance of industrialization and soon became the factory of the world.
The only country which offered scope for colonisation at that time was Africa. Its central regions were still unexplored but by the end of the eighteenth century most of it had been apportioned among the European nations. The other areas captured by them included India, South East Asia and islands in the Pacific. Direct control was not established on China but the imperialistic powers directed its destiny in various other ways.
European Imperialism in Africa
The colonial rivalry of 19th century began especially in Africa. Earlier it was known as the ‘Dark Continent’ because the Europeans were not familiar with its geography. Except the coastal countries like Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, people had very little knowledge about the rest of Africa. Before 1875 only a small portion of Africa was under European dominance. On the northern coast France took Algeria under her protection in 1830. England occupied Cape Colony and then Natal in 1843. On the Western Coast Gambia, Gold Coast, Sierra-Leone and Legas were under the dominance of England and Senegal, Ivory Coast and Gabun were under France. Portugal had occupied Angola and Mozambique and Spain, Spanish Guinea. Thus only 10 percent of African land was under European rule and they were still unfamiliar with the 90 percent area of Africa.
The work of discovering the dark areas of Africa was undertaken by adventurous explorers and religious missionaries. Among these, the name of Dr. David Livingstone deserves special mention. He wandered in various countries of central Africa for five years, and completed the discovery of the valley of Zambesi. When he published the description of his African journey it attracted people’s attention towards Africa. After this, in 1875-76 Henry Marton Stanley explored the Congo valley and the basin of its subsidiaries. He drew the attention of his countrymen towards the rich natural resources of Congo, but England could not pay much attention as it was involved in the eastern problem at that time. After the publication of his book ‘Through the Dark Continent’, the Europeans began to take more interest in Africa.
Belgium and Africa – The division of Africa is an important event in the history of Europe. First of all Leopold II, the ruler of Belgium showed interest in Africa. He planned to establish the Belgian empire in those areas of Africa which had so far been unknown. In 1876, he convened an International Conference in his capital and set up an International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa. Leopold himself became its head and appointed Stanley to explore the Congo region. With the help of Stanley, Leopold occupied the vast area of Congo. Now, Portugal, Italy, Britain and Germany also joined the scramble for different parts of Africa.
France began to bring areas south of Congo under her influence. At the same time Portugal also staked her claim on some regions of Congo and asked England to help her. In 1884, an agreement was signed between England and Portugal according to which England accepted the right to Portugal over the areas near the mouth of the river Congo. Leopold opposed this agreement because it severed the contact the Congo-Free State from the sea coast. France also opposed this agreement. Thus England had to face opposition both from France and the ruler of Belgium. As the relations of England with Germany had strained due to German occupation of Angra Pequena on the south-western coast of Africa, Bismarck supported France and Leopold and rejected the Anglo-Portuguese agreement and requisitioned an international conference to consider this issue.
Berlin Conference – The aim of this conference was to consider the freedom of trade and navigation on the Congo and the Niger rivers and other colonial problems. This conference held between November 1884 and February 1885 was attended by all European nations except Switzerland as well as the representatives of the U.S.A. After the discussions a common code of conduct was drawn, which was known as the Berlin Act and included the following provisions:
(1)The authority of International African Association on Congo-Free State which included most of the Congo Valley was accepted.
(2)All nations were granted freedom of trade and navigation in the Congo valley, but no state would be allowed to have special rights or trade monopoly in the Congo region.
(3)An International Commission will be set up to supervise the observance of the rules of trade and navigation on the Congo river.
(4)About the river Niger, it was decided that its upper portion will be under the control of Britain and the lower under that of France.
(5)About the future division of Africa it was decided that the authority of a state on any part of Africa would be accepted only when it had de facto right over that region. This clause was so vague that it could be interpreted in any way one liked.
The conference also expressed concern for the moral and physical welfare of the people of Africa. But the European nations started a ruthless exploitation of the people of Africa and by 1914, they had divided the whole of Africa except Abyssinea and Liberia among themselves.
Congo-Free State – Belgium established her authority over Congo in 1855. Congo was an international state in name only, in actual practice it continued to be a personal state of Leopold till 1908. Then he handed it to the government of Belgium and the Congo-Free state which was ten times as large as Belgium itself and the richest producer of rubber, became a colony of Belgium.
France and Africa – France already had some regions on the northern sea coast of Africa under her authority, yet she wanted to establish her colonies in Africa and to have control over important areas in Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. Interests of England and France clashed in Egypt. If Egypt passed under the control of some other foreign power, it would threaten Britain’s Indian empire. France established her authority in Algeria in 1847. Tunis lay in the east of Algeria. France wanted to occupy it and merge it with Algeria. During Berlin Congress Britain allowed France to establish her authority in Tunis. Italy expanded her authority in Senegal and the Niger Valley in Western Africa. France took Guinea, Ivory Coast, French Congo and the oasis in Sahara under her protection. France had established her authority on Algeria in 1887.
France and Morocco – A conference of European states was held in 1880 in Madrid which decided that all nations should have freedom to trade in Morocco.
France had occupied Tunis in the north and Gambia in the south of Morocco and now it wanted to have its sway on Morocco. When, Moroccan robbers began to assault French territory an agreement was signed between France and Morocco and they planned to have a joint police force on the border to maintain peace. France signed an agreement with Italy in 1900 according to which Italy assured France not to oppose its influence in Morocco and in lieu of it France allowed Italy to establish its control over Tripoli. England and France signed an agreement in 1904 according to which England recognized special rights of France in Morocco and in lieu of it France accepted special position of England in Egypt. In October 1904, France signed an agreement with Spain which clearly demarcated the areas of their influence in Morocco.
Now France asked the Sultan of Morocco to introduce administrative reforms and sent a French delegation to Fez, the capital of Morocco with proposals of reform. At this time Germany opposed Fench policy in Morocco and convened an international conference in 1906 at Algiers which adopted a proposal and ratified independence of Morocco. Together with it were recognized special interests of France in Morocco and her right to maintain peace and order there. In this way France built a vast empire in north-west territory of Africa.

Britain and Africa – Britain enjoyed supremacy over the land stretching from Cairo to Cape of Good Hope consisting of countries like Egypt, Sudan, South Africa, Rhodesia; Kenya and Uganda in Eastern Africa; and Nigeria and Gold Coast etc. in Western Africa. She also held Cape of Good Hope, Natal, and Transvaal etc. which were renamed as the Union of South Africa in 1810. Britain had granted self-rule to the inhabitants of colonies. The Parliamentary and legal systems of Britain were partly adopted in British colonies.
Boer Problem – In 1814 England received Cape Colony from Holland. It was inhabited by a large number of Dutch farmers who were called Boers. They traditionally followed their language and customs. Now an effort was made to replace Dutch traditions, culture and language by English culture. The Boers resisted this policy. They felt displeased when Britain declared the abolition of slavery in Cape Colony in 1833. They vacated Cape Colony and settled in Natal in 1836. Britain brought Natal under its rule in 1843. Then the Boers migrated to Transvaal and Orange Free State. These colonies were not very important in the beginning so the English recognized their independence. In 1877, England declared the merger of Transvaal in British Empire. The Boers opposed this declaration and in 1880, revolted and defeated in English platoon at Majula-Hill, Gladstone again granted freedom to Transvaal and a treaty had gold mines. Now thousands of miners reached there and in a few days their number exceeded that of the Boers, who apprehended danger to their independence.
The chief leader of these foreigners was Cecil Rhodes, who persuaded British Government to capture Bechuanaland and the Golf of Saint Louisea. Under the influence of Rhodes railway tracks were laid between Cape Country, Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal. In 1889 Rhodes formed the British South Africa Company and secured for it the right to establish British government in the regions north of Transvaal boundary. This region was called Rhodesia after him. In 1890, he was elected Prime Minister of Cape Colony. Under his inspiration, Dr. Jackson attacked Transvaal, but the Boers inflicted a severe defeat on him. This embittered relations between the English and the inhabitants of Transvaal. The relations of the English with Germany also deteriorated.
The Boer War – The War was fought between Transvaal and Orange Free State the two Boer republics on one side and the British government on the other. The Boers fought bravely. They attacked Cape Colony and Natal and caused great loss to Britain. But the Boers could not sustain long and had to surrender at last. The treaty of Vereeniging was signed in 1902. The main terms of this treaty were as follows:
1.The Boers accepted the sovereignty of Britain.
2.Britain allowed the use of Dutch in schools and courts but English was made the language of administration.
3.Transvaal and Orange Free State were made part of the British empire.
4.Britain promised to grant autonomy to the Boers in due course of time.
5.For the rehabilitation of the Boers, the British government gave a grant of 30,00,000.
Soon after signing the treaty, Britain changed its policy. Transvaal and Orange Free State were granted autonomy within five years and within eight years both the provinces joined the Union of South Africa. The Prime Minister of this Union was Louis Botha. In 1914, the Boer armies, under the leadership of General Smuts and Louis Botha conquered German East Africa and then in 1929, South Africa helped Britain with an open heart.
England and Egypt – Egypt was a part of the Ottoman empire and was governed by a representative of the Sultan of Turkey designated as Khedive. In 1811, the governor Mehmet Ali declared the independence of Egypt. In 1833, his grandson Ismail Pasha became the governor. He was an extravagant ruler and wasted a lot of money on pomp and show and reforms. For this he incurred heavy loans from England and France.
The main cause of Britain’s interest in Egypt was the Suez Canal. A company had been set up for the management of the Suez Canal, the shares of which were mainly owned by the French and the Khedive. When the economic condition of Egypt began to deteriorate in 1875, Ismail Pasha sold his share for 4 million to Britain. The construction of the Suez Canal, had reduces distance between England and India. So England wanted to bring this canal under her control. When Ismail stopped the repayment of foreign loans in 1876. England and France jointly established a supreme council and put the income and expenditure of Egypt under the effective control of this council. But Ismail began to oppose this control, hence England and France forced him to give up throne and appointed Taufiq as the Khedive of Egypt in his place.
This dyarchy of England and France gravely deteriorated the condition of Egypt. The rich were heavily taxed and the soldiers were not paid for several months. This intensified discontent in the country. Moreover, the induction of 1400 Europeans in the government services antagonised the Egyptians and in 1882, they revolted under the leadership of Arabi-Bay. This revolt threatened the life and property of the Europeans living in Egypt. England crushed the Egyptian rebels, defeated Arabi-Bay and captured Cairo. Thus started the British control of Egypt.
France opposed the British authority in Egypt but in 1940 signed an agreement with Britain and reconciled with it. Egypt continued as a colony of Britain till 1919.
England and Sudan - Sudan was a subsidiary of Egypt and when Egypt passed under British authority, it was presumed that this authority automatically extended to Sudan also. France could not tolerate it because both England and France wanted to extend their possession on Sudan.
When the revolt of Arabi-Bay had been suppressed, Mohammad Ahmed Masiha took the lead and started a revolt in Sudan in 1885. He called himself 'Mehandi'. (angel) and termed his revolt a 'religious war'. Britain wanted to completely smother this revolt and decided to send a regiment under General Gordon. In 1884, Gordon reached Khartoum. Mehandi murdered him and captured Sudan. England kept quiet for some years, then made a powerful military intervention in 1898. General Kitchner defeated Mehandi on September 2, 1898 and brought Sudan once again under the authority of Egypt (practically the authority of England).
Fashoda Incident - The relations between England and France had been embittered for a decade over the question of expanding their influence in Egypt. France felt annoyed about British exaltation in Egypt and in 1898 her forces planted the French flag at Fashoda on White Nile. The British General Kitchner asked the French to vacate Fashoda. France agreed to withdraw, signed an agreement with Britain in 1899 and acknowledged British possession on the upper portion of the river Nile. In another agreement signed in 1904 France acknowledged British influence over Egypt and Sudan and in lieu of this England permitted France to establish authority over Morocco.
The British Empire - the Largest Empire in History - England was in the forefront of the race for imperial expansion. Before the beginning of the World War I, the British empire covered almost one fourth of the world.
The victorious march of British empire can be divided into four stages. In the first stage, before the American Revolution, England followed the policy of occupying large areas such as thirteen colonies in America, Canada, India, and Australia and establishing trading posts. In the second stage in the nineteenth century, Britain captured smaller areas mostly islands. These islands were used as ports of call on important sea routes and through them connections were maintained with larger areas. In the third stage, after the World War I, Britain granted self-rule to some selected areas and thus ascertained their loyalty. In the fourth stage, after the World War II many other territories quickly independence one after the other.
Germany and Africa - German Chancellor Bismarck was not interested in colonisation. Really speaking, he did not want to antagonize England by joining the race for colonies. But after 1870, there was a sudden spurt in German industries and the German merchants began to look for new colonies. Besides this, the growing population and the desire to enhance national glory forced him to pay attention to colonisation. In 1882, the German government assured to help a German trader Luderitz to acquire land in south west Africa. Luderitz acquired some land in Angra Pequena and planted to German flag there. At the same time Bismarck sent Dr. Nachtigal to spread German influence in the equatorial region. The efforts of Dr. Nachtigal unfurled the German flag in Cameroons and Togoland. Britain acknowledged German supermacy over Cameroons.
IN 1884, Karl Peters planted the German flag in the coastal areas of east Africa which stretched to 60,000 miles. In 1885 Bismarck declared this land as the protectorate of Germany. After this, Karl Peters occupied the adjoining areas on behalf of the German East Africa Company. These areas included some portion of Somaliland. In this way German East Africa was carved out. Imperialistic ambitions of Germany gradually towards the near east and led to the first World War in which Germany was defeated and deprived of all her colonies.
Italy and Africa - Like Germany, Italy also was a late comer in the race for empire building in Africa. In the beginning she tried to occupy Tunis but in 1881 France occupied it and frustrated Italy. Then Italy tried to occupy coastal areas of Red Sea, captured Massowah in 1885, and brought Eritrea under her control. She wanted to add some portion of eastern Somaliland to her empire, but the independent state of Abyssinia lay between them. Italy attacked Abyssinia, but in the battle of Adova the Abyssinian army gave a crushing defeat to the forces of Italy in 1896. As a result of the Adis Ababa Treaty, Italy promised not to extend the colony of Eritrea. But in 1911, Italy took arms against a weak Turkey and captured Tripoli and Syrinika (now Libya). After its defeat in World War II, Italy was deprived of all her colonies.
Portugal - A small country like Portugal also participated in the division of Africa. It established the colony of Angola on the Western coast of Africa South of the Congo region. It also built a colony Mozambique or Portuguese East Africa on the eastern coast of Africa, Portugal wanted to possess all the region between Angola and East Africa, but failed to do so.
Spain - Spain captured some territory on the north west coast of Africa as also Tangier in Morocco. In 1906 Spain got an opportunity of setting its foot hold on the sea coast opposite Gibraltar.
Thus we see that most of the continent of Africa was divided between the imperial powers of Europe as set out in the following table:
S.No.      Name                           Area                  Population (in 1961)
1.          French Africa                     40,22,150               4,41,52,600
2.          British Africa                     20,25,719               6,25,33,645
3.          Belgian Africa                    9,24,300                1,20,00,000
4.          Portuguese Africa,                7,78,000                95,00,000
5.          Spanish Africa                    1,34,200                14,95,000
Thus about 90 percent of south Africa was under the control of imperial powers. The fragmentation of Africa had taken place without fighting a war. Secondly the division was accomplished very quickly; that is within 25 to 30 years. The reason behind this was that England and France which considered Germany and Italy their chief rivals hurried to lay their hands on as much area as possible. Yet another characteristics of this division was that the local rulers or chiefs put up no resistance. So the European nations easily set up their colonies there.
The above description clearly shows that the imperial powers of Europe brought almost the whole of Africa under their control. The colonization of Africa was a scheme on the part of the European states to occupy the continent and divide the spoils.
European Expansion in the Pacific Region
By 1900, almost all the islands in the Pacific Ocean had passed under the control of one or the other country. England and France showed no interest in building colonies in this region. The demand to occupy these islands was made by the Europeans and their officers who had settled in Australia and New Zealand etc. and accordingly, different countries attempted to establish their influence on these islands. England and France got the largest number of islands. Holland also built a vast empire in the archipelago of East Indies.
Fiji Islands - In 1870, the British settlers in Fiji requested their government to make Fiji a part of their empire. Some Australians also favoured British sovereignty over the islands in the south west region of the Pacific Ocean. There was anarchy in Fiji so in January 1875, the British government declared Fiji a crown colony and made it a part of their empire.
New Guinea - After Fiji rose the problem of occupying the eastern part of New Guinea. Holland had already occupied the Western part. Australia and New Zealand showed special interest in this region. Germany tried to occupy the New Guinea regions in 1884, Britain informed her that Australia had its interests in that area. To avert confrontation, Germany and England signed an agreement on April 1, 1885, according to which north eastern part of New Guinea passed under German sovereignty and south eastern, under British sovereignty.
Somoa Island - Like New Guinea, Britain, Germany and the U.S.A. entered into competition for the possession of Samoa islands. An agreement was signed between Britain, Germany and the U.S.A. in 1889 according to which all the three countries would have a joint hold over Samoa and allow it to retain its independence. Special rights of America were recognized over the part of Pago-Pago. There was a war between Spain and America in 1898 in which Spain was defeated and the Philippines passed under the supermacy of America. This affected Samoa also, hence in 1899 it was decided to divide Samoa and a treaty was signed according to which Germany got Upol and Savai islands, Britain got Tonga and some part of the Solomon island and America got Tutuila and Pago-Pago islands. Germany bought Carolina, Maniana and Pelew islands from Spain. The U.S.A. occupied Hawai and Guam islands. This completed the division of the Pacific region.
Imperial Expansion in Central and Western Asia
The main rivals in the central and western Asia were Britain and Russia. Russia was angry with the outcome of the Berlin Congress and to take revenge on England in central Asia began to move swiftly towards the east. Its main object was to search for sea ports which might be used throughout the year. It wanted to capture Constantinpole in the south and in the west some parts on the coast of Atlantic Ocean. The expansionist policy of Russia might threaten British empire in India. Therefore Britain tried to put a check on it. The relations between the two remained strained till 1907. Actually, Russian expansion in Asia had begun after the Crimean War when in 1858 it had forced China to cede territory north of river Amur and had laid the foundation of the Vladivostak port on the coast of the Pacific, Russia had already taken possession of Tashkent (1864), Samarkand (1868), Khincha (1873) and Khosh Kand (1876) in Central Asia before the Berlin Congress. Now it touched the boundary of Afghanistan, and caused concern to the British government about its Indian empire. This made the British invade Afghanistan in 1878-79. They removed the ruler and put on the throne of Kabul another Amir who was friendly to them. Obstructed on this side, Russia began to advance in another direction. It conquered Tuekrstan in 1881, and Merv in 1884. This caused concern to the British government. When Russia reached Panjdeh in 1885, tension between the two mounted. Finally, both of them jointly demancated the boundary of Afghanistan.
Russia Influence in Persia - In Western Asia, Russia tried to bring Persia under its influence but there it was opposed by England. In 1892 England established the Imperial Bank of Persia and provided loan facilities to the state. Russia followed suit and established the Bank of Loans and began to advance loans to the government. The Russian influence was growing in the north of Persia and in the south England was trying to extend its influence. Then an agreement was signed between England and Russia which recognized the north of Peris as area of Russian influence and south as that of British influence, but in the central Persia both had equal freedom of carrying on their activities.
To contain Russian influence in Tibet, the British government of India sent a military expedition in 1904 under the leadership of Younghusband and acquired control over the foreign policy of the Tibetan government. The Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 caused great damage to the power and prestige of Russia. With the efforts of France an agreement was signed between Russia and Britain in 1907 according to which Russia acknowledged Afghanistan and Tibet as areas of British influence.
Imperial Expansion of European Powers in Far East
The European imperialism had entered Asia much before it entered Africa. Most of the countries here had been shared out by 1871. Russia held its sway on almost one-third of Asia. India was under Britain. In South East Asia, China and Japan were the only two countries where European imperialism could set its foot-hold but by now Japan had itself become an imperialist country. In such conditions, China remained the only country where imperialists could hold supermacy. Now all eyes were fixed at China.
China and England - China was a prosperous country but had fallen a victim to anarchy under a weak government. Taking advantage of her weakness European states tried to occupy various parts of China. The weakness of Chinese empire became apparent during the First Opium War of 1840-42. At that time England occupied Hong Kong. In 1857-58 England and France forced China to subscribe to the Treaty of Tient-sin according to which China had to give special facilities to Britain, France, Russia and America on her eleven ports. Now China was fully open to foreigners.
Taking advantage of the Chinese weakness France took Cochin China under its protection, occupied Annam and Tokin in 1882 and formed the protectorate of Indochina. But the real plunder of China was started by Japan. Japan waged a war against China in 1894-95 and dissevered the vast area of Korea from it. The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed between the two countries, according to which China had to hand over Port Arthur and the Peninsula of Liao Tung as well as to cede Korea. This Chinese defeat revealed to the European states that the Chinese empire was on the verge of decline and many privileges could be secured from it under duress. Now the European countries tried to secure trade facilities and to establish their political influence in China. In 1897 two German priests were murdered in China. Germany forced China in 1898 to lease the province of Kiaochow for 99 years as a compensation as well as to grant the right to lay railroads in the province of Shantung. It also acquired many other trade facilities. In March 1898, China leased to Russia Port Arthur and the surrounding areas for a period of 25 years. Then France obtained the Kwang Chow region on lease for 99 years. Britain acquired Wei-Hei-Wei and the areas surrounding Kowloon on terms similar to those of Russia. By the end of 19th century it appeared that the European nations would share out China among themselves.
Boxers War - The growing influence of the foreigners in China aroused in some nationalists a strong desire for reforms in the country. All Chinese citizens resented the foreigners and it was but natural that this resentment would burst into a revolt against them. In these conditions a party called the 'Boxers' was organized in China. A violent revolution started before the end of 1899. To suppress this the joint forces in Russia, England, America, Germany, France and Japan mounted an attack in China. In 1901, China was forced to sign an agreement with the foreign states and pay Rs. 150 crores in 39 annual installments as was indemnity. Under American influence, the European nations assured to maintain territorial integrity of China. Then Russia tried to extend its influence in Manchuria, but this strained relations with Japan. Japan entered into an agreement with England in 1902 for its safety. The defeat of Russia in 1904 in the Russo-Japanese war brought a significant change in the situation in the Far East.
Importance of Imperialism
Although imperialism was responsible for economic and political exploitation of undeveloped regions of the world, yet it initiated revolutionary changes in these countries. The imperialists introduced there advanced systems of health, defence, education, transportation and communication. They employed scientific methods in the fields of agriculture and industry and taught the inhabitants not only use of western goods but also introduced them to progressive western ideas about religion, administration and recreation. Some imperialist waged a war against social evils like satee systems, cannibalism and slavery. The west was also affected by the undeveloped regions. Now rubber, oil, silk, dry fruits and handicrafts of indigenous people began to enter the west in larger quantities than before. Many Western artists drew inspiration from these people for their literature, paintings and music. The Western scholars who made a scientific study of these areas learnt many new things in the fields of Geography, Zoology, and medical scientific study of these areas learnt many new things in the fields of Geography, Zoology, and medical science. Imperialism roused strong feelings of nationalism which resulted in several revolts and revolutions in the colonized nations.
Thus during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the European powers satisfied their imperialistic hunger to a large extent in Africa and Asia but their conquest was not permanent and shortly afterwards the nations of the world confronted each other in a devastating war.